Archival Intelligence

3 Archival Intelligence Elizabeth Yakel School of Information University of Michigan, USA yakel@umich.edu Archival researchers are well-known for their use of primary sources of information, such as visual, textual, and aural archival and manuscript materials. Evertheless, research concerning their information behavior (including the needs, seeking, and search strategies) lags behind other research on users' information behavior. On the one hand, this situation is potentially beneficial because one can take advantage of existing theories, such as berrypicking (Bates, 1989), foraging (Pirolli & Card, 1999), or sense making (Russell et al., 1993). The lack of focused research can be also detrimental to a deeper understanding of the work of archival researchers, because the above theories do not adequately explain the information behavior of users of archival materials. As long as knowledge of the information behavior of researchers using primary sources is lacking, the theory and models to respond to these individuals will be deficient. Archival intelligence (Yakel & Torres, 2003) proposes a first step in the formulation of a model defining the scope of information literacy for primary sources. This model seeks to change the current paradigm of "archival orientation" toward one focusing on archival information literacy. In previous research focusing on the information needs of humanities scholars (e.g., Stieg, 1981; Wiberly & Jones, 1989), the emphasis has been on their use of published works and not on primary sources. More recent work (e.g., Cole, 2000) has begun to examine users' search processes regarding archival materials, but this work fails to explain much of the decision making that goes on before entry into the archives. While these theories should not be discarded, they need carefull consideration and research as to how they can best be applied in the archival environment. In addition to the information science community, the recent research in the educational psychology community has focused on primary sources. Wineberg (2001) and others have demonstrated the value of using primary sources in K-12 classrooms as a means of promoting critical thinking skills among the students. A research component has been incorporated into many social studies and history guidelines. As a result, teachers and their students are discovering digitized primary sources and physical archives (e.g., Robyns, 2001). Yet, in many cases teaching critical thinking skills is based exclusively on predefined document sets and students are not taught the information literacy skills to search for, select, and identify the most appropriate records on their own. The classroom exercises are also frequently combined with an "archival orientation" that focuses on teaching students how to use one archives for the current class project. This instructional approach does little to promote lifelong learning or the independent ability to use primary sources. The model of Archival Intelligence (Yakel & Torres, 2003) proposes several dimensions of conceptual knowledge researchers need to know in the search, selection, and use phases of primary source research. The dimensions to archival intelligence are :  Knowledge of archival theory, practices, and procedures.  Strategies for reducing uncertainty and ambiguity when unstructured problems and ill-defined solutions are the norm  Intellective skills or the ability to understand the connection between representations of documents, activities, and processes with the actual object or process being represented These larger conceptual areas can be further outlined. Knowledge of archival theory, practice, and procedures involves: 1) recognizing archival terminology and conceptual understanding of archives; 2) internalization of rules; and 3) the ability to assess one's own knowledge and that of the reference archivist. These three areas cover a broad range of knowledge and skills that appear to be germane to using primary sources and navigating the institutions in which the archives are housed effectively. Since most inquiries involving primary sources represent unstructured problems, developing strategies for reducing uncertainty and ambiquity in archives is essential. Two of these strategies are developing search tactics as a means of structuring ill-structured problems and the ability to ask questions of the archives staff as well as of the records themselves. Reitman (1965) notes that an unstructured problem is one that has "one or more parameters the values of which are left unspecified as the problem is given to the problem solving system" (p.141). In archives, the existence of evidence is often not known, search and retrieval systems are complex, and/or the evidence requires interpretation and may be ambiguous. Search strategies for the same query will vary from repository to repository due to differences in institutional structure, recordkeeping practices, and available records. For example, researching the origin of women's athletics at two universities would require the use of different access tools, consultation of varying records, and assessing diverse types of evidence (trustees' minutes, athletic office records, correspondence from the Dean of Women). The best evidence in one repository may differ considerably from that in another. Furthermore, many archival queries result in ill-structured solutions as the sources are interpreted and reinterpreted. Intellective skills encompass the ability to understand representations of documents, activities, and processes (Zuboff, 1988, pp.75-80). These skills are an important part of the development of an overall framework for problem solving in archives. There are several dimensions of intellective skills, among them the ability to plan an overall research strategy and understanding how a surrogate leads to or represent a primary source. A researcher has to make meaningful connections while advancing though the research process and develop the ability to act effectively on those connections. In particular, the ability to visualize collections through representations is becoming increasingly critical as the number of online surrogates increases. In the online environment, researchers may encounter multiple versions of the same record or collection. For example, at the University of Michigan, one can potentially access five separate representations of the same manuscript collection at two separate levels of granularity (a MARC record and an Encoded Archival Description[EAD] finding aid) through the Library of Congress OCLC, RLIN, and the local digital library. How researchers make sense of complex and overlapping archival access systems is unknown and an important feature of archival intelligence. Further research is needed to refine this model and build a theory of information behavior vis-à-vis primary sources. Two pressing questions dominate : 1). Investigations are needed to develop a better understanding of researcher's information behavior when conducting studies involving primary sources. This includes basic research into information needs and analysis of the most effective search strategies for primary sources in the online environment. 2). Action research needs to be done to develop, implement, and evaluate educational offerings focused on addressing information literacy for primary sources. In both of these areas there is much that can be tested and applied from the information science and educational psychology literatures. Ideally, these studies would incorporate a variety of qualitative and quantitative approaches to explore information behavior surrounding primary sources in great depth as well as with sufficient breadth with which to make generalizations. Archival intelligence is a model for information literacy education in archives that applies information-seeking research to an understudied area : primary sources. As it develops from model to theory, it would have to be tested by studying diverse users and information needs in the array of environmentsin which primary sources exist. These include traditional and digital archives, microfilm reading rooms, and libraries with published primary sources. Also, because archival intelligence encompasses the range of information behaviors, such as needs, seeking, and selection, theory developed out of this model would have to consider other theories, such as cognitive authority and relevance. In the Increasingly digital world, primary sources are becoming more visible, used, and mainstreamed in all libraries. Promoting information literacy for primary sources is a natural extension of other efforts in libraries and information centers. Bates,M.(1989). The design of browsing and berrypicking techniques for the online search interface. Online Review 13, 407-424. Cole,C.(2000). Name collection by Ph.D.history students: Including expertise. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51, 444-455. Pirolli,P. & Card,S.K.(1999). Information foraging. Psychological Review 106, 643-675. Reitman, W.R.(1965). Cognition and thought. New York : Wiley. 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